Amfetamin, sebuah NDRA dan salah satu DRA yang paling terkenal.4-Metilaminoreks (4-MAR), isomer cis-nya merupakan salah satu NDRA yang paling selektif terhadap dopamin.
Agen pelepas dopamin (dopamine releasing agent, disingkat DRA) adalah jenis obat yang menginduksi pelepasandopamin dalam tubuh dan/atau otak.[1][2][3][4]
Saat ini belum diketahui adanya DRA selektif dan kuat.[5][6][7] Kurangnya DRA selektif yang diketahui berkaitan dengan fakta bahwa sangat sulit untuk memisahkan afinitas transporter dopamin (DAT) dari afinitas transporter norepinefrin (NET) dan mempertahankan kemampuan pelepasan pada saat yang sama. Meskipun telah dilakukan evaluasi terhadap lebih dari 350 senyawa, dilaporkan pada tahun 2007 bahwa hampir tidak mungkin untuk memisahkan pelepasan norepinefrin dan dopamin.[6] Hingga tahun 2014, masih belum ada DRA selektif yang teridentifikasi, meskipun sekitar 1.400 senyawa telah disaring.[7][3] Demikian pula, meskipun agen pelepas norepinefrin (NRA) yang cukup selektif telah diketahui (misalnya preferensi ~10 hingga 20 kali lipat pelepasan norepinefrin dibandingkan dopamin),[8][9][14][15] belum ada NRA yang sangat selektif yang teridentifikasi.[7] Meskipun belum ada DRA selektif yang teridentifikasi, SDRA selektif, meskipun dengan agonisme reseptor serotonin bersamaan, telah dijelaskan pada tahun 2014.[10] SDRA tanpa agonismereseptor serotonin yang diketahui seperti BK-NM-AMT telah dijelaskan pada tahun 2019.[16][17][18]
Amfetamin seperti dekstroamfetamin dan dekstrometamfetamin adalah NDRA yang cukup seimbang tetapi melepaskan norepinefrin sekitar 2 hingga 3 kali lebih kuat daripada dopamin.[8][9][15][22] Namun, penelitian lain menemukan bahwa dekstroamfetamin dan dekstrometamfetamin kurang lebih setara atau sedikit lebih menguntungkan dopamin dalam hal pelepasan norepinefrin versus dopamin.[1][23] Sejumlah NDRA yang berpotensi lebih seimbang termasuk levometkatinona (l-MC),[15] 3-kloroamfetamin (3-CA, PAL-304),[1][24] 3-klorometkatinona (3-CMC, klofedrona, PAL-434),[25] dan 2-fenilmorfolina (2-PM, PAL-632)[26] diketahui, dan semuanya tampak kurang lebih sama kuatnya dalam menginduksi pelepasan dopamin versus norepinefrin. Beberapa NDRA termasuk cis-4-metilaminoreks (cis-4-MAR),[27][28] 3-klorofenmetrazina (3-CPM, PAL-594),[29][26] dan naftilmetrazina (PAL-704),[26] tampaknya melepaskan dopamin sekitar 2 hingga 3 kali lebih kuat daripada norepinefrin, dan karenanya mungkin termasuk di antara NDRA yang paling selektif terhadap dopamin yang diketahui.
Pemolina, yang secara struktural terkait dengan aminoreks, adalah stimulan yang digunakan untuk mengobati ADHD yang dikatakan bertindak sebagai DRI dan DRA selektif, tetapi dikatakan hanya merangsang pelepasan dopamin secara lemah.[30][31][32] Terdapat beberapa bukti in vitro, meskipun beragam, bahwa antidepresan dan DRI yang agak selektif yakni amineptin, selain menghambat penyerapan kembali dopamin, juga dapat secara selektif menginduksi pelepasan dopamin presinaptik tanpa memengaruhi pelepasan norepinefrin atau serotonin.[33][34][35] Namun, amineptin lebih besar daripada batas ukuran struktural kecil yang diketahui dari agen pelepas monoamina,[3] menunjukkan bahwa mungkin sebenarnya bukan DRA.
Meskipun belum ada DRA selektif yang pasti yang telah dijelaskan, salah satu pengecualian yang mungkin adalah 2-fluorometkatinona (2-FMC). 2-FMC memiliki EC50 untuk pelepasan dopamin sebesar 48,7 nM tetapi hanya menginduksi 85% pelepasan norepinefrin pada konsentrasi 10 μM. Sebagai perbandingan, nilai EC50 dari NDRA metkatinona adalah 49,9 nM untuk pelepasan dopamin; dan 22,4 nM untuk pelepasan norepinefrin; dan menginduksi 100% pelepasan norepinefrin pada konsentrasi 10 μM. Oleh karena itu, dibandingkan dengan metkatinona, 2-FMC tampaknya relatif lebih selektif atau efektif untuk menginduksi pelepasan dopamin dibandingkan pelepasan norepinefrin.[16][1] Bagaimanapun, nilai EC50 dari 2-FMC untuk induksi pelepasan norepinefrin tampaknya tidak tersedia.[16] Selain itu, dalam kasus lain, obat terkait 3-metoksimetkatinona (3-MeOMC) hanya melepaskan 68% norepinefrin pada konsentrasi 10 μM, namun nilai EC50 obat tersebut sebesar 111 nM untuk induksi pelepasan norepinefrin telah diberikan dalam publikasi lain.[36][37]
↑Heal DJ, Gosden J, Smith SL (December 2014). "Dopamine reuptake transporter (DAT) "inverse agonism"--a novel hypothesis to explain the enigmatic pharmacology of cocaine". Neuropharmacology. 87: 19–40. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.06.012. PMID24953830.
12Negus SS, Mello NK, Blough BE, Baumann MH, Rothman RB (February 2007). "Monoamine releasers with varying selectivity for dopamine/norepinephrine versus serotonin release as candidate "agonist" medications for cocaine dependence: studies in assays of cocaine discrimination and cocaine self-administration in rhesus monkeys". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 320 (2): 627–636. doi:10.1124/jpet.106.107383. PMID17071819. As is commonly true for existing monoamine releasers, the potency of these compounds to release norepinephrine was similar to or higher than potency to release dopamine, and compounds with exclusive selectivity for dopamine or norepinephrine release are not yet available (Rothman et al., 2001). [...] Second, the present study documented optimal effects with releasers selective for dopamine/norepinephrine versus serotonin release; however, the degree to which the dopaminergic and/or noradrenergic effects of these drugs contributes to their profiles of behavioral effects remains to be determined. Releasers with selectivity for dopamine versus both norepinephrine and serotonin would help address this issue.
123Rothman RB, Blough BE, Baumann MH (January 2007). "Dual dopamine/serotonin releasers as potential medications for stimulant and alcohol addictions". AAPS J. 9 (1): E1–10. doi:10.1208/aapsj0901001. PMC2751297. PMID17408232. Based in part on the above rationale, we sought to identify and characterize a non-amphetamine transporter substrate that would be a potent releaser of DA and 5-HT without affecting the release of NE. After an extensive evaluation of over 350 compounds, we found it virtually impossible to dissociate NE- and DA-releasing properties, perhaps because of phylogenetic similarities between NET and DAT.
12345Bauer CT (5 July 2014). Determinants of Abuse-Related Effects of Monoamine Releasers in Rats. VCU Scholars Compass (Thesis). doi:10.25772/AN08-SZ65. Diakses tanggal 24 November 2024. Another potential determinant for increased abuse potential of [monoamine releasers (MARs)] is selectivity for [dopamine (DA)] versus [norepinephrine (NE)]. [...] amphetamine and other abused monoamine releasers have slightly (2 to 3x) higher potency to release NE than DA (Rothman et al., 2001). [...] ephedrine (a 19-fold NE-selective releaser) has been shown to maintain self-administration in monkeys (Anderson et al., 2001) and substitute for amphetamine (Young et al., 1998) and methamphetamine (Bondareva et al., 2002) in drug discrimination studies in rats. [...] This leads to the hypothesis that NE release is another determinant of the abuse-related effects produce by MARs; however, the role of DA vs. NE selectivity has been difficult to investigate further due to a lack of drugs that possess significant selectivity for DA or NE relative to the other catecholamine. [...] Unfortunately, compounds with low potency to release [serotonin (5HT)] and variable potencies to release DA vs. NE do not exist, [...]
1234Rothman RB, Baumann MH (October 2003). "Monoamine transporters and psychostimulant drugs". European Journal of Pharmacology. 479 (1–3): 23–40. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2003.08.054. PMID14612135.
1234Rothman RB, Baumann MH (2006). "Therapeutic potential of monoamine transporter substrates". Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. 6 (17): 1845–1859. doi:10.2174/156802606778249766. PMID17017961.
↑Xue W, Fu T, Zheng G, Tu G, Zhang Y, Yang F, Tao L, Yao L, Zhu F (2020). "Recent Advances and Challenges of the Drugs Acting on Monoamine Transporters". Curr Med Chem. 27 (23): 3830–3876. doi:10.2174/0929867325666181009123218. PMID30306851.
↑Nishino S, Kotorii N (2016). "Modes of Action of Drugs Related to Narcolepsy: Pharmacology of Wake-Promoting Compounds and Anticataplectics". Narcolepsy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. hlm.307–329. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-23739-8_22. ISBN978-3-319-23738-1.
↑Kohut SJ, Jacobs DS, Rothman RB, Partilla JS, Bergman J, Blough BE (December 2017). "Cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects of "norepinephrine-preferring" monoamine releasers: time course and interaction studies in rhesus monkeys". Psychopharmacology (Berl). 234 (23–24): 3455–3465. doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4731-5. PMC5747253. PMID28889212. In the present experiments, two monoamine releasers, [levomethamphetamine (l-MA)] and [D-phenylalaninol (PAL-329)], were shown to produce cocaine-like discriminative-stimulus effects in monkeys, suggesting that they meet the above criteria. One of these compounds, l-MA, also has been shown to serve as a positive reinforcer in rodents (Yokel and Pickens 1973) and monkeys (Winger et al 1994), further confirming the overlap with behavioral effects of cocaine. Both compounds also exhibit an approximately 15-fold greater potency in releasing NE than DA, which may be therapeutically advantageous.
123Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, Romero DV, Rice KC, Carroll FI, Partilla JS (January 2001). "Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin". Synapse. 39 (1): 32–41. doi:10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1<32::AID-SYN5>3.0.CO;2-3. PMID11071707.
↑US 20240335414,Matthew J. Baggott&Sean Dalziel,"Specialized combinations for mental disorders or mental enhancement",diterbitkan tanggal 10 October 2024, diberikan kepada Tactogen Inc.
↑WO 2022061242,Matthew Baggott,"Advantageous tryptamine compositions for mental disorders or enhancement",diterbitkan tanggal 2023 March 24, diberikan kepada Tactogen
12Heal DJ, Smith SL, Findling RL (2012). "ADHD: current and future therapeutics". Behavioral Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Its Treatment. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol.9. hlm.361–90. doi:10.1007/7854_2011_125. ISBN978-3-642-24611-1. PMID21487953. When predicting the likely efficacy and safety of new therapeutic approaches in ADHD, the knowledge gained from existing drugs can be helpful. The pharmacological characteristics of the most effective drugs for treating ADHD, the stimulants, are summarised below and in Table 3: 1. These drugs produce large and rapid increases in the synaptic concentration of catecholamines in the PFC. 2. There is no obvious ceiling on the magnitude of their effect on catecholamine efflux. 3. The most efficacious ADHD drugs also enhance dopaminergic neurotransmission in sub-cortical brain regions. However, some caveats have to be taken into consideration. For example, lack of information in the public domain indicates that drugs that are selective dopamine releasing agents, or noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors with the pharmacological characteristics of methylphenidate, have not been evaluated as potential ADHD therapies. Hence, it is impossible to know whether sub-cortical dopamine efflux is a critical component of maximal efficacy in an ADHD medication, or alternatively, whether a drug with a selective noradrenergic mechanism that is as powerful as methylphenidate or amphetamine could rival the efficacy of the stimulants.
↑Sotomayor-Zárate R, Jara P, Araos P, Vinet R, Quiroz G, Renard GM, Espinosa P, Hurtado-Guzmán C, Moya PR, Iturriaga-Vásquez P, Gysling K, Reyes-Parada M (May 2014). "Improving amphetamine therapeutic selectivity: N,N-dimethyl-MTA has dopaminergic effects and does not produce aortic contraction". Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 114 (5): 395–399. doi:10.1111/bcpt.12168. PMID24314229.
↑Partilla JS, Dersch CM, Baumann MH, Carroll FI, Rothman RB (1999). "Profiling CNS Stimulants with a High-Throughput Assay for Biogenic Amine Transporter Substrates". Problems of Drug Dependence 1999: Proceedings of the 61st Annual Scientific Meeting, The College on Problems of Drug Dependence, Inc(PDF). NIDA Res Monogr. Vol.180. hlm.1–476 (252). PMID11680410. Diarsipkan dari asli(PDF) tanggal August 5, 2023. RESULTS. Methamphetamine and amphetamine potently released NE (IC50s = 14.3 and 7.0 nM) and DA (IC50s = 40.4 nM and 24.8 nM), and were much less potent releasers of 5-HT (IC50s = 740 nM and 1765 nM). Phentermine released all three biogenic amines with an order of potency NE (IC50 = 28.8 nM)> DA (IC50 = 262 nM)> 5-HT (IC50 = 2575 nM). Aminorex released NE (IC50 = 26.4 nM), DA (IC50 = 44.8 nM) and 5-HT (IC50 = 193 nM). Chlorphentermine was a very potent 5-HT releaser (IC50 = 18.2 nM), a weaker DA releaser (IC50 = 935 nM) and inactive in the NE release assay. Chlorphentermine was a moderate potency inhibitor of [3H]NE uptake (Ki = 451 nM). Diethylpropion, which is self-administered, was a weak DA uptake inhibitor (Ki = 15 µM) and NE uptake inhibitor (Ki = 18.1 µM) and essentially inactive in the other assays. Phendimetrazine, which is self-administered, was a weak DA uptake inhibitor (IC50 = 19 µM), a weak NE uptake inhibitor (8.3 µM) and essentially inactive in the other assays.
↑Kohut SJ, Fivel PA, Blough BE, Rothman RB, Mello NK (October 2013). "Effects of methcathinone and 3-Cl-methcathinone (PAL-434) in cocaine discrimination or self-administration in rhesus monkeys". Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 16 (9): 1985–1998. doi:10.1017/S146114571300059X. PMID23768644.
123US 20130203752,Blough BE, Rothman R, Landavazo A, Page KM, Decker AM,"Phenylmorpholines and analogues thereof",diterbitkan tanggal 8 August 2013,dikeluarkan tanggal 11 April 2017, diberikan kepada National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
↑Namjoshi OA, Decker AM, Landavazo A, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Rothman RB, Blough BE (2015). "Chemical modifications to alter monoamine releasing activity of phenmetrazine analogs as potential treatments of stimulant addiction". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 146: e48. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.09.502.
↑Bonnet JJ, Chagraoui A, Protais P, Costentin J (1987). "Interactions of amineptine with the neuronal dopamine uptake system: Neurochemicalin vitro and in vivo studies". Journal of Neural Transmission. 69 (3–4): 211–220. doi:10.1007/BF01244342. ISSN0300-9564. PMID3625193. S2CID9886698.